with the government enquiry and report

and other official documents by the

PREFACE

HASTILY written, and when the author was in broken health from wounds and tortures endured in the Forbidden Land, this book was not intended as a literary effort, but merely as an unvarnished record of a journey of exploration taken in Tibet in the year I897.

The following were the geographical results of the expedition:

First. The discovery of the two principal sources of the Brahmaputra River, never before visited by white man.

Second. Fixing the position of the highest peaks of what has lately been described as the "new Trans- Himalaya" range. The. first description of the geo- graphical importance, or non-importance, of this so- called new range.

Third. The solution of the geographical controversy regarding a supposed connecting stream between the lakes Mansarowar and Rakastal in Tibet. The author's contention that no visible communication exists has since been proved correct by later explorers.

In the orthography of geographical names the author has adopted the way of spelling which seemed most sensible, viz.: to, give native names their true sound as they are locally pronounced. No exception has been made, even for the grand and poetic " Himahlya " (the abode of snow), which is in English distorted into the meaningless and unromantic "Himalaya."

During the journey an area of 12,500 square miles, in Tibet proper, was surveyed and mapped. It is a satisfaction to the author to find his map of that country copied, even traced, by later explorers.

The illustrations are from the author’s own photographs for the first portion of the journey. For the latter part of the journey the illustrations are from sketches also taken by the author. The torture scenes are of course drawn from memory.

CHAPTER XL

MORE ROBBERS-THE FRIENDS OF TIBETAN AUTHORITIES-A SNAP-SHOT -A MEEK LOT-PREPOSSESSING FEMALE AND HER CURIOUS WAYS- THE PURCHASE OF TWO YAKS

JUST before leaving the shores of the Rakastal I had a great slice of luck. It happened thus. We had been detected by another band of dacoits who were trying their hardest to overtake us. I had been spying them with my telescope as they rode in our direction. They were driving some twenty yaks in front of them at an unusually fast pace. The dacoits rode ponies. We were about a mile and a half ahead of them now, and close to the edge of the Devil's Lake. We saw them coming down the hill-side at a break-neck speed straight in our direction. It was evident that they were after us. My men became terror-stricken when I gave the order to halt.

The band of dacoits approached and left the yaks in charge of two women. When they galloped in a line towards us, my men, with the exception of Chanden Sing find Mansing, were paralyzed with fright.

They were now a hundred yards off. With loaded rifle in one hand and my camera in the other, I advanced to meet them, knowing that, with their old-fashioned matchlocks, it takes them a considerable time to light the fuse and fire a shot. Moreover, it is almost an impossibility for them to fire on horseback, their weapons being heavy and cumbersome.

I focused them in my twin-lens photographic appa-

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ratus, and waited till I had them well in the field. I snapped the shot when thev were only thirty yards away, vaulting over their ponies in the act of dismounting. The camera, having done its work, was quickly deposited on the ground, and the rifle shouldered. I shouted to them to put down their weapons, and to give force to my request I aimed at them with my Mannlicher.

A meeker lot of brigands I do not believe could be found, though people of that kind are often brave when it is easy for them to be courageous. Their matchlocks were unslung from their shoulders with remarkable quickness and flung to the ground, and their jewelled swords were laid by the side of their firearms. They went down on their knees, and, taking off their caps with both hands, put out their tongues in sign of salute and submission, and I could not help taking another snap-shot at them in that attitude, which was comical, to say the least of it.

My bearer, who had been left to look after the baggage, had placed Mansing in charge, and was now by my side with the Martini-Henry, when one of the women, riding astride, arrived on the scene. She was evidently furious at the cowardice of her men, and I liked her for that. She jumped off her steed, ejaculated words at the top of her voice, shaking her fists at the men still kneeling before me, and at last, foaming with rage, spat on them. While thus haranguing the band of highwaymen, she had an annoying way of pointing at my baggage, but her speech seemed to have little effect on the submissive crowd.

I therefore went up to her, patted her on the back, and gave her a rupee to hold her tongue. She grabbed the coin and rubbed it on her skin coat to make the silver shine. She instantly became calm, and, rubbing the coin until it was quite bright, she raised her fiery eyes,

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staring into mine, and pulled out her tongue to express her thanks.

Kachi and Dola, who knew Tibetan well, were now summoned to address the filibusters for me, and these two Shokas were in such trepidation that they could hardly walk, much less speak. After a while, however, seeing how well I had these supposed terrific rangers under, they were at last able to translate.

" I want them to sell me some yaks and some ponies" I said. " I will pay handsomely for them."

" They say they cannot. The Tarjum will cut their heads off if he comes to know it. They will only sell one or two yaks."

" Very good. How much do they want?" " Two hundred silver rupees. But," added Dola, "sahib, do not give them more than forty. That is a great deal more than they are worth. A good yak costs from ten to sixteen rupees."

After some three or four hours' bargaining, during which time the bandits descended gradually from two hundred rupees to forty and I rose from twenty to that figure, we at last agreed, amid the greatest excitement on both sides, that their two best yaks should become my property. I then, becoming quite friendly, purchased pack -saddles from them, and sundry other curiosities. They gave me tea, even, and tsamba. The fiery woman only had still a peculiar way of keeping one eye fixed on my baggage, and her envy of my property seemed to increase when she saw me paying for the yaks. If she kept one eye on my goods, I kept both there; and I took good care that my rifle was never out of my hand, and that no one ever came too near me from behind.

We counted the money down, some fifty rupees, including all purchases. Each coin was passed round and

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sounded by each of our sellers, and when the entire sum was handed over the coins were passed back and recounted so that there should be no mistake. Time in Tibet is not money, and my readers must not be surprised when I tell them that counting, recounting, and sounding the

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small amount took more than two hours. The two yaks were eventually handed over to us. One, a huge, long-haired, black animal, restless and powerful; the other equally black, strong, and hairy, but somewhat gentler.

To catch them, separate them from the herd, pass ropes through their respective nostrils, and tie pack-saddles on their backs were all operations we as novices had to master. It was hard work indeed, but we struggled till we succeeded.

When we parted we were good friends, the bandits behaving admirably, and I made up my mind that I would at any time rather trust a bandit in Tibet than an official.

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CHAPTER XLT

TIBETAN COATS,HATS, AND BOOTS-WHY A TIBETAN PREFERS TO LEAVE HALF THE CHEST AND ONE ARM BARE-ORNAMENTATIONS- MANNER AND SPEECH-IGNORANCE AND SUPERSTITION-WAY OF EATING-JOGPA WOMEN AND CHILDREN-HEAD-DRESS

IN a way, I was sorry when my interview with the jogpas came to an end, for, although they were undoubtedly brigands, they were certainly interesting. Their original and curious dress and manner of conversation, their unusual but eminently suitable mode of eating, and their jovial freedom of demeanor were really quite refreshing. Their dress was quite representative of Tibet, for the men wore a great variety of coats and hats, probably owing to the facility with which they obtained them, and no two individuals were dressed alike, though certain leading characteristics of dress were conserved in each case. One man wore a gaudy coat trimmed with leopard-skin, another had a long gray woollen robe like a dressing-gown, taken up at the waist by a kamarband, and a third was garbed in a loose raiment of sheepskin, with the wool inside. Yet a fourth was arrayed in a deep-red tunic, fastened by a belt of leather with silver ornamentations inlaid in wrought- iron to hold a needle-case, tinder-pouch and steel, with a bead hanging from the leather thong, and a pretty da-ger with sheath of ebony, steel, and filigree silver, besides other articles, such as a bullet-pouch and bag. In their kamarbands, or belts, the Jogpas, in cot-nnion with the majority of Tibetan men, wear a sword in front, and whether tunic coat is long or short, it is invariably loose

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and made to bulge at the waist in order that it may contain a store of eating and drinking bowls (the pu-kus), snuff-box, and sundry bags of money, and tsamba and bricks of tea! It is owing to this custom that most Tibetan men, when seen at first, impress one as being very stout, whereas, as a matter of fact, they are somewhat slight in figure. Tibetans leave one arm and part of the chest bare, letting the sleeve hang loose. The reason for this practice, which seems to have puzzled many people, is that in Tibet the days are very hot and the nights cold (the drop in the thermometer in Southwest Tibet being at times as much as 80, and even 100 degrees), and as the Tibetans always sleep in their clothes, the garments that protect their bodies from being frozen at night are found too heavy and warm in the hot sun, and therefore this simple expedient is adopted. When sitting down, both arms are drawn from the sleeves and the chest and back are left bare; but when on foot, one arm, usually the left, is slipped in, to prevent the coat and its heavy contents falling off.

I have no hesitation in pronouncing

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the Tibetan boots, from a utilitarian point of view, as the best in the world. They have all the advantages a boot should possess, especially those with flat soles of thick twisted cord. The upper part, being made of red and green felt, keeps the foot warm without preventing ventilation, and plenty of spreading room is left for the toes when walking. The felt gaiter, reaching to just below the knee, holds the soft sole of the boot flat under the foot, giving absolutely free action to the ankle. The most salient and sensible point in the Tibetan foot-gear, however, is that the foot, all but the top part, is incased in the thick sole, thus preventing the jamming of toes between stones when walking, for instance, on debris, and also doing away with the accumulation of snow and mud between the sole and boot, so incovenient in our foot-gear. There are many varieties and makes of boots in Tibet, but the principle is always the same. The boots are always home-made, each individual making his own, except in large towns, where foot-gear can be purchased, and necessarily the quality is then not up to the same high standard. The difference in Tibetan boots is mainly in the quality or texture of the soles; for instance, the Lhassa boots have finer, softer, and more elastic soles than those made in Shigatze, which are quite hard and stiff, and supposed to

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wear out much sooner than the more pliable ones of the sacred city. Then there are some with leather soles, made specially for wet or snowy regions, and these, when greased over, are quite waterproof. Two kinds of these are in use, one with pointed and curled toes, for cutting one's way into the snow, the other of the usual shape. Men and women alike wear these boots. The principal Lamas and officials of Tibet have adopted the Chinese -pattern boots of leather, with heavy leather or wooden soles and enormous nails under them.

The Tibetans have innumerable varieties of head-gear. The most peculiar of all, worn chiefly by soldiers and dacoits, is one in the form of a section of a cone with large rim, made entirely of twisted cord like that used for the soles of the boots, and with a hole at the top for ventilation. The conical part being too small to fit the head, it is held upon the skull by means of two strings tied under the chin. Tere are also conical brown and gray felt ones, not unlike filters used in chemical laboratories, and these, when of the better quality, are frequently ornamented with gold, blue, or red embroidery of Chinese manufacture. An impressive head-gear was worn by the medicine-man attached to the band of robbers I had interviewed. It resembled at first sight an exaggerated jockey's cap of red silk, but closer examination showed that it con- sisted of two long strips of red silk, well stretched on a light frame of bamboo, and at an angle of about 90 degrees. This hat was held on the head by means of a band round the back of the head, and it projected some fifteen inches over the forehead. In addition to these, there are of course common cloth or fur caps, with ear-flaps; and it is not uncommon to see, in Tibet, soldiers wearing a silk kamarband bound tightly round the head, turban-fashion, with one end left hanging down over the ear. The commoner

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Tibetan, however, is not fond of covering his head, and though he often has one or more caps stowed away in the loose folds of his coat, he seldom wears one on his head under ordinary circumstances. This does not apply to officials, who are never seen without a circular cap of Chinese shape, surmounted by a topknot.

All men, except the Lamas, who shave their heads clean, wear a pigtail, short and shaggy at times, or long and ornamented with a piece of

cloth in which it is sewn and passed through rings of ivory, bone, glass, metal, or coral. Ornaments of silver, such as perforated coins, are much used in adorning the men's pigtails, and coral and malachite ornaments are also common in Tibet for the same purpose, and are much valued by the natives. Men wear, passed through the lobe of the ear, an ear-ring with malachite ornamentations, and often with an additional long pendant. It is usually of brass or silver, and occasionally of gold. More common than the solitary ear-ring is the brass or silver charm-box, frequently containing a likeness of Buddha, which nearly every Tibetan carries slung round his neck. Tibetans are, as a rule, excessively superstitious and fond of charms of every sort. Their superstitions are, of course, the result of ignorance, and so are most of their other bad qualities. Except among the higher officials and the Lamas, education can hardly be said to exist in Tibet, the population being kept in 'the most abject ignorance. Few can read, and none can write, and the Lamas take very good care that only those shall learn who are likely to be of use. Honesty and honor are two qualities almost unknown in any class or condition in Tibet; and as for truthfulness, all travellers in the country can testify to the practical impossibility of obtaining it

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from a Tibetan. Cruelty is innate in them, and vice and crime are everywhere rampant.

That the Jogpas had good digestions was evident from the way they ate when, having concluded the sale of the yaks, they squatted down to a hearty meal of tsamba, chura, and tea. They took from their coats their wooden and metal pu-kus, and quickly filled them with tsamba; pouring over it some steaming tea, made as usual with butter and salt in a churn, they stirred it round and round the bowl with their dirty fingers until a paste was formed, which they rolled into a ball and ate, the same operation being repeated over and over again until their appetite was satisfied. Each time, before refilling, the bowl. was licked clean by rotating the pu-ku round and round the tongue.

Feeling the heat of the sun, after their meal both men and women removed their garments above the waist, showing ornaments of gold, silver, and copper encircling their necks.

The women folk of the dacoits, though far from beautiful, possessed a certain charm, arising from their curious wildness. Unlike those of Tibetan women generally, their teeth were very good, and their complexions were not specially dark, the black ointment with which their cheeks, noses, and foreheads were smeared making them appear darker than they really were, and being decidedly unbecoming. All had regular features, and their eyes and mouths were full of expression. Their hair, plaited into numberless little tresses, was brought up and fastened in a graceful curve over the head, kept firm by a red turban, which was arranged to show another row of little tresses on the forehead, the ends being joined in succession to one another. They wore large ear-rings of gold inlaid with malachite, and were in manner so unaffected that they disregarded even the most primitive conventions.

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The children were talkative, and had the bearing of adults. They wore swords in their belts, even at the early age of eight or ten years. In a basket that had been carried by one of the yaks I saw an infant only a few months old. I caressed it, to the horror of his superstitious mother, who snatched the child away and washed and rubbed the poor little fellow's face 'until the skin was sore, declaring that children die that are touched by strangers.

The men were just as superstitious. When I purchased some rice from them they would not let me touch it till it had become my property. They objected each time that I stretched out my arm to examine the rice, and showed me eventually a handful of rice at a considerable distance, to let me judge of its quality. I had to purchase only the handful at first. Having assured myself that it was good, I then purchased the remainder.

CHAPTER XLII

A DAKU'S STRANGE IDEAS-THE RIDGE BETWEEN THE TWO LAKES- BLACK TENTS-CONFRONTING THE TWO LAKES-A CHAIN OF HIGH PEAKS-GOMBAS-CHANGE IN THE WEATHER

WE had marched on the same afternoon about half a mile in the direction of Mansarowar, when we were overtaken by one of the Dakus whom we had left a short time before. He rode towards us, apparently in a great state of excitement. Having dismounted, he drew his sword and began chasing one of my yaks. This seemed so strange a proceeding that we were at a loss to under- stand his intentions; but as he screamed to us that he meant no harm, we let him go on.

He eventually overtook one recalcitrant yak, and, after a struggle with the unfortunate beast, he flung his arms round its neck and rested his head between its horns.

I was anything but pleased with these antics, fearing that this effusion was only a dodge to cut the beast's throat. Much to my astonishment, I found that the young jogpa had seized a tuft of the yak's hair with his teeth anal was trying to tear it off, while the unfortunate beast was making desperate efforts to shake off its persecutor. The hair eventually gave way, and with a mouthful of it hanging from both sides of his tightly closed lips the jogpa now let go of the animal's head, and, brandishing his sword, made a dash for its tail.

I seized the man by his pigtail, while he in his turn clung to the tail of the frightened yak, which, bolting, dragged us after it at an unpleasant pace.

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The Jogpa, in our mad flight, cut off a long lock of the yak’s silkly hair, and, having secured this, appeared to be quite satisfied, let go and sheathed his sword. He concealed the stolen locks in his coat, and then made profound obeisances to us, putting out his tongue as usual and declaring that, unless that precaution is taken when parting with a beast, bad luck is sure to come to you. This closed the incident; the Jogpa roda away perfectly happy, and we continued our march across the stony plain until we reached the ridge which extends across it and divides the two sheets of water. We climbed up to the top, rising to 16,450 feet, and, to make certain that the ridge really extended right across, I made an expedition about half-way across, finding the northern part somewhat lower than the southern, still rising several hundred feet above the level of the lakes. This expedi-

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tion incurred some loss of time, and when night came we were still on the ridge.

From our camping-ground we saw fifteen black tents on the hill-side, and to the east, on the lake shore, there was a large Gomba, or Lamasery, with a temple and a number of mud houses. I estimated the distance between ourselves and the Gamba at only eight miles—a cheering fact, because I hoped to get fresh provisions there to enable us to proceed more rapidly on our journey, We were now quite out of reach of the Gyanema sepoys, as well as of the Tajum and the Taklakot Jong Pen, and if we could only obtain a sufficient quantity of food during the night, and proceed by the jungle early the next day, there would be little danger of our being overtaken. The Shokas were, of course, again shaking with fright at the idea of entering a Tibetan settlement, but I told them very firmly that we must reach Tucker Gomba and the village that night.

We had below us the two great lakes, and before I left this magnificent panorama I could not help taking a last long look at the marvellous scene. The Devil's Lake, with its broken, precipitous shores, its rocky islands and outstretching peninsulas, was far more enchanting to me than the sacred lake at its side, in which, according to tradition, dwell Mahadeva and all the other good gods. Although the water is equally blue and limpid, although each lake has for background the same magnificent Gangri chain, Mansarowar, the creation of Brahma, from whom it takes its name, is not nearly so weirdly fascinating as its neighbor. Mansarowar has no ravines rising precipitously from its waters, in which their vivid coloring would be reflected as in a mirror; it is almost a perfect oval without indentations. There is a stony, slanting plain some two miles wide between the

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water's edge and the hills, surrounding it, except along the ridge separating it from the Rakastal, where its shore is slightly more rugged and precipitous.

Directly south of the lake is a chain of high peaks covered with snow, from which several streams descend. From where we stood we could see evident signs, as in the case of the Rakastal, that the level of the lake must at one time have been at least thirty feet higher than it is at present, and the slanting bed of small rounded and smooth stones, which extends from one and a half to two miles beyond the water-line, is evidence enough that the water must once have been up to that point. I believe that it is still gradually receding.

Round the lake there are several tumbling-down sheds in charge of Lamas, but only one important Gomba (monastery) and temple are to be found-viz., at Tucker village.

I was told that a small Gomba and serai in charge of Lamas stand to the northwest of the lake, but I cannot vouch for the accuracy of the statement, as I did not visit them myself, and the information I received from Tibetans regarding their position and importance was conflicting.

As the nature of the country suddenly altered between the Devil's Lake and Mansarowar, so, too, the weather and the temperature greatly changed. Over the Rakastal we invariably saw a lovely blue sky, whereas over Mansarowar heavy black clouds always lowered and rain fell incessantly. From time to time the wind blew off the rain for a few minutes, and lovely effects of light played on the water, but fresh clouds, with violent bursts of thunder, soon made the scene again gloomy and depressing.

It was much warmer on the Mansarowar side of the ridge than on the other, and, probably owing to damp-

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ness, the air seemed quite thick to breathe, instead of being crisp and light, as it was along the shores of the Devil’s Lake. Indeed, when I recall the Mansarowar, I cannot help thinking that it is the home not only of the gods but also of all the storms.

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[…]

CHAPTER XLV

FRIENDLY LAMAS-CHANDEN SING AND MANSING PURIFIED-MANSING'S SARCASM-PILGRIMS TO MANSAROWAR AND THEIR PRIVILEGES-FOR LUCK!-OUTSIDE THE GOMBA

SEVERAL Lamas came to visit me in the morning, and professed to be pleased to see me; in fact, they asked me to go and pay them a visit in the Lamasery and temple. They said there was much sickness in the village, and, as they believed me to be a Hindoo doctor, they wished I could do something to relieve their sufferings. I promised to do all I could, and was very glad to have this unique chance of visiting a Lamasery and of studying the cases that would be brought before me. I carried my rifle in my hand even during this friendly visit to the Lamas.

When I came out of our stuffy, dark room, preceded and followed by a crowd of inquisitive natives, I had a good look round this strange village. After the storm of the night, we did not have the beautiful blue sky that might have been expected, but over us hung threatening clouds, while the waters of the sacred lake, softly moved by the wind, made a gentle lapping sound on the beach. Chanden Sing and Mansing, the two Hindoos, divested of all their clothing except a doli, were squatting near the edge of the lake, having their heads shaved clean by Bijesing the Johari. I must confess that I was somewhat annoyed when I saw them using my best razor for the purpose, but I repressed my anger on remembering

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that, according to their religion, the fact of being at Mansarowar absolved them from all sins. My two servants, with heads turned towards Kelas Mount, seemed excited, and were praying so fervently that I stood to watch them. They washed themselves repeatedly in the water of the lake, and at last plunged into it. On coming out shivering, they each took out of their clothes a silver rupee and flung it into the lake as an offering to the God Mahadeva. Then, with hairless faces and heads, they dressed and came to pay their salaams to me, professing to be now happy and pure.

"Siva, the greatest of all gods, lives in the waters of Mansarowar!" exclaimed my bearer, in a poetic mood. " I have bathed in its waters, and of its waters I have drunk. I have salaamed the great Kelas, the sight of which alone can absolve all sins of humanity; I shall now go to heaven."

"I shall be satisfied if we get as far as Lhassa," grumbled the sceptical Mansing, out of ear-reach of the Tibetans.

Chanden Sing, who was well versed in religious matters, explained that only Hindoo pilgrims who had lost both parents shaved their heads on visiting Mansarowar, as a sacrifice to Siva, and, if they were of a high caste, on their return to their native land after the pilgrimage it was customary to entertain all the Brahmins of the town to a banquet. A man who had bathed in Mansarowar was held in great respect by everybody, and commanded the admiration and envy of the entire world.

The Mansarowar Lake is about forty-six miles round, and those pilgrims who wish to attain a greater state of sanctity make a kora, or circuit, on foot along the water- line. The journey occupies from four to seven days, according to circumstances, and one trip round will absolve

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the pilgrim from ordinary sins; twice the circuit clears the conscience of any murder; and three times will make honest and good a person who has killed his or her father, mother, brother, or sister. There are fanatics who make the tour on their knees, others accomplish the distance lying down flat at each step on their faces, similar to the pilgrims to Kelas.

According to legend, Mansarowar was created by Brahma, and he who shall bathe in its waters will share the paradise of Mahadeva. No matter what crimes he may have previously committed, a dip in the holy lake is sufficient to purge the soul as well as the body. To please my men, therefore, and perhaps bring myself some luck, I , too, hurled a couple of coins into the water.

The purifying ablutions being over, I ordered Chanden Sing to take his rifle and follow me into the Gomba, as the Lamas were so polite that I feared treachery on their part.

The large square building, with its walls painted red and its flattish dome of gilt copper, rose by the waterside, and was both picturesque and handsome in its severe simplicity.

There came sounds from inside of deep, hoarse voices muttering prayers, the tinkling of bells and clanging of cymbals. From time to time a drum was beaten, giving a hollow sound, and an occasional and sudden touch upon a gong caused the air to vibrate until the notes, in a gradual diminuendo, were carried away over the holy lake.

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AFTER Chanden Sing and I had entered into the Lamasery, the large door, which had been pushed wide open, was immediately closed. We were in a spacious court- yard, three sides of which had two tiers of galleries supported by columns. This was the Lhaprang, or Lama's house, and directly in front of me was the Lha Kang, or temple, the floor of which was raised some five feet above the level of the ground, with a very large door leading into it. At this entrance were, one on either side, recesses, in which, by the side of a big drum, squatted two Lamas with books of prayers, before them, a praying- wheel and a rosary in their hands, the beads of which they shifted after every prayer. At our appearance the monks ceased their prayers and beat the drums in an excited manner. From what I could judge, there was a commotion in the Gomba. Lamas, old and young, rushed to and fro out of their rooms, while a number of Chabis, or novices-boys between the ages of twelve and twenty- litied the banisters of the upper veranda with expressions of evident suspense and curiosity depicted on their faces. No doubt the Lamas had prepared a trap for us. I warned Chanden Sing to be on the alert, and set him on guard at the entrance of the temple, while I, depositing a

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few silver coins on the drum of the Lama to my right, took off my shoes in sign of respect, and, much to the amazement of the monks, quietly entered the house of worship. Partly astonished at the sight of the silver, and more so at my want of caution, the Lamas, of whom there was a good number in the court-yard, remained motionless and mute. The High Lama, or Father Superior of the Monastery, at last came forward, stooping low, and placing one thumb above the other, with his tongue hanging out to show his superlative approval of my visit to the many images representing deities or sanctified Buddhist heroes which were grouped along the walls of the temple. The largest of these were about five feet high, the others about three feet. Some were carved out of wood, their drapery and ornaments being fairly artistic in arrangement and execution, while others were fashioned

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in gilt metal. There were a number in a sitting posture and some standing erect, and they all rested on ornamented pedestals or plainer bases painted blue, red, white, and yellow. Many wore the ancient Chinese double-winged cap, as used to this day by Corean officials, and were placed in recesses in the wall decorated with stuffs, wood carvings, and rough paintings of images.

At the foot of these images was a long shelf, on which, in bright brass vessels of all sizes, were ablations of tsamba, dried fruit, chura, wheat, and rice, offered through the Lamas by the devotees to the different saints. Some of the ears of barley were ornamented with imitation leaves of murr (butter), colored red, blue, and yellow.

The ceiling of the temple was draped in red woollen cloth similar to that of the clothes worn by the Lamas themselves, and from it hung hundreds of strips of silk, wool, and cotton of all imaginable colors. The roof was supported by columns of wood forming a quadrangle in the centre of the temple and joined by a balustrade, compelling the worshippers to make a circuit from left to right in order to pass before the several images. In a shrine in the central part of the wall facing the.entrance was Urghin, or Kunjuk-chick (God alone), and in front -of it, on a kind of altar covered with a carpet, a collection of donations far more abundant than those offered to the other images.

The Lama, pointing at it, told me that it was a good God, and so I salaamed it and deposited a small offering in a handy collection-box, which seemed to please the Lama greatly, for he at once fetched a holy-water amphora, hung with long veils of friendship and love, and poured some scented liquid on the palms of my hands. Then, producing a strip of veil, he wetted it with the

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scent and presented it to me. The majority of pilgrims generally go round the inside of the temple on their knees, but, notwithstanding that, to avoid offending prejudices, I generally follow the principle of doing in Rome as the Romans do, I could not here afford the chance of placing myself at such a disadvantage in case of a surprise. The High Lama explained the different images and threw handfuls of rice over them as he called them by their respective names, all of which I tried hard to remember, but, alas! before I could get back to the seat and scribble down their appellations they had all escaped my memory. A separate entrance led from the living part of the monastery into the temple.

Lights, burning in brass bowls, their wicks being fed with melted butter, were scattered on the floor in the central quadrangle, and near them lay oblong books of prayers printed on the smooth yellow Tibetan paper made from a fibrous bark. Near these books were small drums and cymbals. One double drum, I noticed, was made from reversed sections of human skulls, and my at- tention was also attracted by some peculiar head-gear worn by the Lamas during their services and ceremonies. On these occasions they not only accompany their chanting and prayers with the beating of drums and clashing of cymbals, but they at the same time make a noise on cane flutes, tinkle hand -bells, and sound a large gong. The noise of these instruments is at times so great that the prayers themselves are quite inaudible. Unfortunately, I failed to see any of the awe - inspiring masks which are used by Lamas in their eccentric and mystic dances, during which, when the Lamas spend the whole day in the temple, they consume much tea with butter and salt in it, which is brought to them in cups by Lamas of an inferior order acting as servants. They

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pass hour after hour in their temples, apparently absolutely absorbed in praying to the God above all gods, the incarnation of all the saints together united in a trinity, the Kunjuk-Sum.

Kunjuk- Sum, translated literally, means "the three deities," and some take it to refer to the elements-air, water, and fire-which in the Tibetan mind are symbols of speech, charity, and force, and life. One great point in Buddhism, as every one knows, is the advocation of love and respect to one's father and mother, and the prohibition against injuring one's neighbors in any way. Ac- cording to the precepts contained in some eight hundred volumes called the Kajars, the Tibetans believe in a heaven (the Deva Tsembo) free from all anxieties of human existence, full of love and joy, and ruled over by a god of infinite goodness, helped by countless disciples called the Chanchubs, who spend their existence in performing charitable deeds among living creatures. With a number of intermediate places of happiness and punishment they even believe in a hell, where the souls of sinners are tormented by fire and ice.

" God sees and knows everything, and He is everywhere," exclaimed the Lama, "but we cannot see Him. Only the Chanchubs can see and speak to Him."

"What are the evil qualities to be mostly avoided?" I inquired of the High Lama, who spoke a little Hindustani, "Luxury, pride, and envy," he replied.

"Do you ever expect to become a saint?" I asked him.

"Yes, I hope so, but it takes five hundred transmigrations of an uncontaminated soul before one can be one."

Then, as if waking to a sudden thought, he seized my hand impulsively and spread my fingers open. Having

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done this, he muttered two or three words of surprise. His face became serious, even solemn, and he treated me with strange obsequiousness. Rushing out of the temple, he went to inform the other Lamas of his discovery, whatever it was. They crowded round him, and from their words and gestures it was easy to see that they were bewildered.

When I left the company of the strange idols and came into the court-yard, every Lama wished to examine and touch my hand, and the sudden change in their behavior was to me a source of curiosity, until I learned the real cause of it some weeks later.

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CHAPTER XLVII

THE JONGPEN'S STATEMENTS REGARDING ME-SECTS OF LAMAS-LA- MASERIES-GOVERNMENT ALLOWANCE-IGNORANCE OF THE CROWDS -HOW LAMAS ARE RECRUITED-LAMAS, NOVICES, AND MENIALS- DANCES AND HYPNOTISM-INFALLIBILITY-CELIBACY AND VICE- SCULPTORS-PRAYER-WHEELS AND REVOLVING INSTRUMENTS-NUNNERIES-HUMAN BONES FOR EATING-VESSELS AND MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS-BLOOD-DRINKING

BEFORE I left the monastery, the Lamas, who had now become more or less accustomed to me, asked me many questions regarding India and concerning medicine. These seemed to be subjects of great interest to them. They also questioned me as to whether I had heard that a young sahib had crossed over the frontier with a large army, which the Jong Pen of Taklakot had defeated, be-heading the sahib and the principal members of the expedition.

I professed to be ignorant of these facts, and so I really was, though I naturally felt much amused at the casual way in which the Jong Pen of Taklakot had disposed of the bear-skin before he had even caught the bear itself. The Lamas took me for a Hindoo doctor, owing to the color of my face, which.was sunburned and had long remained unwashed, and they thought that I was on a pilgrimage of circumambulation round the Mansarowar Lake. They appeared anxious to know whether illnesses were cured by occult sciences in India, or by medicines only. I, who, on the other hand, was more interested in getting information than in giving it, turned the conversation on the Lamas themselves.

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Of course I knew that there are sects of red, yellow, white, and black Lamas, the red ones being the older and more numerous throughout the country; next to them come the yellow Lamas, the Gelupkas, equally powerful in political and religious matters, but not quite so numerous; and, lastly, the white Lamas and the black Lamas, the Julinba, who are the craftsmen in the monasteries, work- ing at painting, printing, pottery, and ornamentation, besides attending on the other Lamas and making themselves useful all round in the capacities of cooks, shepherds, water-carriers, writers, and last, but not least, executioners. The Lamaseries are usually very rich, for the Tibetans are a deeply devout race, and the Lamas are not backward in learning how to extort money from the ignorant worshippers under pretences of all kinds. Besides attending to their religious functions, the Lamas are traders at large, carrying on a smart money-lending business, and charging a very high interest, which falls due every month. If this should remain unpaid, all the property of the borrower is confiscated, and if this prove insufficient to repay the loan the debtor himself becomes a slave to the monastery. It is evident, from the well-fed countenances of the Lamas, that, notwithstanding their occasional bodily privations, they, as a rule, do not allow themselves to suffer in any way, and no doubt can be entertained as to their leading a smooth and comfortable existence of comparative luxury-a condition which frequently degenerates into vice and depravity.

The larger Lamaseries receive a yearly Government allowance, and considerable sums are collected from the ablutions of the faithful, while other moneys are obtained by all sorts of devices which, in any country less religious than Tibet, would be considered hardly honorable and often even altogether criminal. To any one acquainted

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with Tibet, it is a well-known fact that, except in the larger towns, nearly all people besides brigands and Lamas are absolutely poor, while the monks themselves and their agents live and prosper on the fat of the land. The classes are maintained in complete ignorance, and seldom is a layman found who can write or even read. Thus everything has to go through the Lamas' hands before it can be sanctioned.

The Lamaseries and the Lamas, and the land and property belonging to them, are absolutely free from all taxes and dues, and each Lama or novice is supported for life by an allowance of tsamba, bricks of tea, and salt. They are recruited from all ranks, and whether honest folks or murderers, thieves or swindlers, all are eagerly welcomed on joining the brotherhood, One or two male members of each family in Tibet take monastic orders, and by these means the monks obtain a great hold over each house or tent hold. It is hardly an exaggeration to say that in Tibet half the male population is made up of Lamas.

In each monastery are found Lamas, Chabis, and a lower grade of ignorant and depraved Lamas, slaves, as it were, of the higher order. They dress and have clean- shaven heads like their superiors, and do all the handiwork of the monastery; but they are mere servants, and take no direct active part in the politics of the Lama Government. The Chabis are novices. They enter the Lama- sery when very young, and remain students for many years. They are constantly under the teaching and supervision of the older ones, and confession is practised from inferior to superior. After undergoing successfully several examinations they become effective Lamas, which word translated means " high - priest." These Chabis take minor parts in the strange religious, ceremonies in which the Lamas, disguised in skins and ghastly masks,

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sing and dance with extraordinary contortions to the accompaniment of weird music made by bells, horns, flutes, cymbals, and drums.

Each large monastery has at its head a Grand Lama, not to be confounded with the Dalai Lama of Lhassa, who is believed, or rather supposed to have an immortal soul transmigrating successively from one body into another.

The Lamas eat, drink, and sleep together in the monastery, with the exception of the Grand Lama, who has a room to himself. For one noon in every twelve they observe a strict seclusion, which they devote to praying, and during which time they are not allowed to speak. They fast for twenty-four hours at a time, with only water and butter-tea, eating on fast-days sufficient food only to re- main alive, and depriving themselves of everything else, including snuff and spitting, the two most common habits among Tibetan men.

The Lamas have great pretensions to infallibility, and on account of this they claim, and obtain, the veneration of the people, by whom they are supported, fed, and clothed. I found them, as a rule, very intelligent, but in- human, barbarously cruel, and dishonorable, and this was not my own experience alone. I heard the same from the overridden natives, who wish for nothing better than a chance to shake off their yoke.

Availing themselves of the absolute ignorance in which they succeed in keeping the people, the Lamas practise to a great extent occult arts, by which they profess to cure illnesses, discover murders and thefts, stop rivers from flowing, and bring storms about at a moment's notice. Certain exorcisms, they say, drive away the evil spirits that cause disease. It is certain that the Lamas are adept at hypnotic experiments, by which means they contrive to let the subjects under their influence see many

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things and objects that are not there in reality. To this power are due the frequent reports of apparitions of Buddha, seen generally by single individuals, and the visions of demons, the accounts of which alone terrify the simple-minded folk, and cause them to pay all their spare cash in donations to the monastery.

Mesmerism plays an important part in their weird dances, during which extraordinary contortions are performed and strange positions assumed, the body of the dancer being eventually reduced to a cataleptic state, in which it remains for a great length of time.

The Lamas swear to celibacy when they enter a Lamasery; but they do not always keep these vows, and they are besides addicted to the most disgusting of all vices in its very worst forms, which accounts for the repulsive ap- pearance of far-gone depravity so common among the middle-aged Lamas.

All the larger Lamaseries support one or more Lama sculptors, who travel all over the district, and go to the most inaccessible spots to carve on rocks, stones, or pieces of horn, the everlasting inscription, " Omne mani padme hun," which one sees all over the country. Unseen, I once succeeded, after much difficulty and discomfort, in carrying away two of these heavy, inscribed stones, which are still in my possession, and of which reproductions are given in this volume.

Weird and picturesque places, such as the highest points on mountain passes, gigantic boulders, rocks near the sources of rivers, or any spot where a.mani wall exists, are the places most generally selected by these artists to engrave the magic formula alluding to the reincarnation of Buddha from a lotus flower.

The famous prayer-wheels, those mechanical contrivances by which the Tibetans pray to their God by means

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of water, wind, and hand power, are also manufactured by Lama artists. The larger ones, moved by water, are constructed by the side of, or over, a stream, and the huge cylinders on which the entire Tibetan prayer-book is inscribed are revolved by the flowing water. The wheels moved by wind-power are similar to those used by the Shokas, which I have already described, but the Tibetans often have prayers printed on, the slips of cloth. The smaller prayer-wheels, revolved by hand, are of two different kinds, and are made either of silver or copper. Those for home use are cylinders, about six inches high. Inside these revolve on pivots, on the principle of a spinning top, the rolls of prayers which, by means of a projecting knob above the machine, the worshipper sets in motion. The prayers can be seen revolving inside through a square opening in the cylinder. The more universal prayer-wheel in every-day use in Tibet is, however, of the pattern shown in the illustration. It is usually constructed of copper, sometimes of brass, and frequently entirely

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or partly of silver. The cylinder has two movable lids, between which the prayer-roll fits tightly. A handle with iron rod is passed through the centre of the cylinder roll, and is kept in its place by means of a knob. A

encircling the cylinder attaches it to a short chain weight; this serves, when started by a jerk of the lid, to give a rotatory movement, which must, accord to rule, be from left to right, and which is kept up indefinitely, the words, "Omne mani padme hun," or simply " Mani, mani," being repeated as long as rotation is kept up.

The more ancient wheels have the prayers written by hand instead of printed, and are contained in a small black bag. Charms, such as rings of malachite, jade, bone, or silver, are often attached to the weight and chain by which the rotary movement is given to the wheel. These praying-machines are found in every Tibetan family, and nearly every Lama possesses one. They keep them jealously, and it is very difficult to get the real ones. I was particularly fortunate, and during my jour-

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ney in Tibet I was able to purchase as many as twelve, two of which were extremely old.

Besides the rosary, which the Lamas always use in a similar way to the Roman Catholics, they have a brass instrument which they twist between the palms of their hands while saying prayers, and this is used exclusively by Lamas. It is from two and a half to three inches in length, and is rounded so as to be easily held in the hollow of the two hands.

In Tibet, as in other Buddhist countries, there are nunneries besides Lamaseries. The nuns, unattractive in

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themselves mostly, and looked down upon, shave their heads and practise witchcraft and magic, just as the Lamas do. In some of these nunneries strict clausura is enforced, but in most of them the Lamas are allowed access, with the usual result that the nuns become the concubines of the Lamas. Even apart from this, the women of the nunneries are quite as immoral as their brethren of the Lamaseries, and at their best they are but a low type of humanity.

The Lamas who, at certain periods of the year, are allowed an unusual amount of freedom with women, are those who practise the art of making musical instruments and eating-vessels out of human bones. The skull used for making drinking-cups, tsamba bowls, and single and double drums, and the humerus, femur, and tibia bones are turned into trumpets and pipes. These particular Lamas are said to relish human blood, which they drink out of the cups made from men's skulls.